Multicellular Heterotrophs- many-celled organisms that comprise Kingdom Animalia; unable to produce their own food

Asymmetrical- having no symmetry or pattern such as left and right halves or anterior and posterior regions

Sessile- to be fixated to one place, attached to a substrate

Filter-Feeding- to attain nutrients through the use of filtering nutrients out of seawater

Epithelial Layer- flat cells lining the outside of the folded wall of Grantia

Incurrent Canals- structures formed by the folded wall of Grantia that open to the outside

Flagellated Canals- structures formed by the folded wall of Grantia that open to the central chamber

Spongocoel- central chamber of Grantia

Choanocytes- structures lining the inside of flagellated canals in Grantia, also called collar cells, they move their flagella to draw water through the collar and trap food particles

Porocytes- structures containing pores by which water flows through from the incurrent canals to the flagellated canals and on to the spongocoel, where it waits to exit via the osculum

Osculum- large hole located at the end of a sponge, site at which water exits the sponge

Intracellular- digestion occurring inside cells

Amoebocytes- structure lining the wall of a sponge along with spicules and mesenchyme

Spicules- crystalline skeletal structures lining the wall of a sponge along with the amoebocytes and mesenchyme

Mesenchyme- gelatinous matrix lining the wall of a sponge along with amoebocytes and spicules

Spongin- proteinaceous fibers secreted by amoebocytes that help make up the skeleton of a sponge

Gemmules- stress-resistant aggregates of amoebocytes that serve as one mode of asexual reproduction in sponges, during favorable conditions the gemmule can grow into a mature organism

Radially Symmetrical- having a body shape characterized by repetitive body areas arranged in a circle around a central point

Ectodermis- outside cellular layer of the body wall of a radially symmetrical organism

Endodermis- inside cellular layer of the body wall of a radially symmetrical organism that lines the gastrovascular cavity, also called the gastrodermis,

Mesoglea- gelatinous structure separating the ectodermis and endodermis of a radially symmetrical organism

Polyps- cylindrical animals consisting of a mouth surrounded by tentacles atop the cylinder; usually attached to a substrate and may be solitary or colonial; one of two body forms of a cnidaria (coelenterata)

Medusae- free-floating umbrella-shaped animals whose mouths point downward, surrounded by hanging tentacles; one of two body forms of a cnidaria (coelenterata)

Polymorphism- alternation between multiple body forms; literally, "many forms"

Planula Larva- swimming mass of ciliated cells formed after fertilization of a cnidarian zygote; eventually attaches to a substrate and develops into a polyp

Ephyra- immature medusae that can develop into mature medusae

Cnidocytes- stinging cells located at the tips of the tentacles of cnidarians, contain nematocysts

Nematocysts- small, barbed harpoon-like structures located within cnidocytes, used to capture prey

Gastrovascular Cavity- structure by which captured prey are pushed through by the mouth in preparation for extracellular digestion

Extracellular Digestion- type of digestion that occurs after food is pushed through to the gastrovascular cavity in cnidarians

Basal Disks- structures by which polyps of Hydra are able to hang from the water’s surface, or, more likely, attach to a hard substrate

Hydranths- specialized feeding polyps of Obelia, one of multiple kinds of polyps found in this polymorphic organism

Gonangia- reproductive polyps of Obelia, one of multiple kinds of polyps found in this polymorphic organism

Velum- structure located on the inner periphery of the medusae of Gonionemus

Mouth- structure located at the end of the manubrium of Gonionemus

Manubrium- structure located in Gonionemus, has the mouth at the end of it

Gastrovascular Cavity- structure in Gonionemus that radiates from the center of the organism

Radial Canals- structures connected to a circular canal in Gonionemus

Circular Canal- structure located around the perimeter of Gonionemus, connects the radial canals

Gonads- tissues which produce gametes

Tentacles- structures in Gonionemus that have a rough surface

Scyphistoma- polyp stage of Class Scyphozoa

Fragmentation- type of asexual reproduction in Class Anthozoa in which pieces of the basal disk tear away from a moving anemone to form a new individual

Phyla

Phyla Porifera:
Asymmetrical, sessile animals without complex tissue or organ development. Larval sponges are free swimming, whereas adults are sessile. Sponges filter-feed by circulating water through pores and canals lined with flagellum-bearing choanocytes. Many sponges have a skeleton composed of spicules (calcium carbonate or silica), spongin (a protein), or both. Examples: Grantia, Euplectella, Spongia

Phyla Cnidaria:

Radially symmetrical animals that mostly have distinct tissues and two basically different body forms: polyps and medusae. The digestive cavity (gastrovascular cavity, or coelenteron) has only one opening.

Three classes: Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, Anthozoa

Class Hydrozoa (hydras): Hydra, Obelia, Physalia, Gonionemus

Class Scyphozoa (jellyfish): Cyanea capillota, Aurelia, Cassiopeia

Class Anthozoa (corals, anemones): Metridium, Tubipora

Mesoderm- cellular structure located between the ectoderm and endoderm

Triploblastic- characteristic of organisms possessing three germ layers; ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

Organs- cellular structures comprised of independent tissues

Bilateral Symmetry- characteristic of organisms possessing a clearly defined anterior and posterior end

Monoecious- characteristic of organisms possessing both male and female sex organs

Eyespots- sensory organs found within the head of Dugesia, a planaria

Pharynx- tubular structure leading to the gastrovascular cavity, food is shuttled through the pharynx to the gastrovascular cavity

Endoparasites- parasites living inside their host

Ectoparasites- parasites living on the surface of their host

Epicuticle- acellular but metabolically active structure surrounding trematodes as a substitute for an epidermis, made of protein and lipids secreted by mesodermal cells, resists digestive enzymes; functions in respiration and absorption of nutrients

Intermediate Hosts- organism harboring immature stages of a parasite

Definitive Host- host that contains sexually mature parasites

Scolex- anterior end of parasitic cestodes, adheres to a host’s intestinal wall with hooks or suckers

Neck- structure in cestodes found behind the scolex

Proglottids- series of segments behind the neck of a cestode; may be 10-15 meters long

Gravid- egg-carrying proglottids which eventually break from the end of a cestode and pass from the host with feces

Protostomes- major group of phyla in which the mouth is derived from the embryological blastopore

Cuticle- flexible and chemically complex structure which functions as the outer covering of nematodes

Pseudocoel- body cavity in roundworms consisting of a fluid-filled space between the body wall and digestive tract

Complete Digestive Tract- characteristic of organisms possessing a clearly defined mouth and anus

Phyla

Phyla Platyhelminthes (Flatworms):

Bilaterally symmetrical acoelomates. Flatworms are the simplest animals that have organs; they lack a circulatory system. Flatworm guts have only one opening; they are mostly hermaphroditic, with complex reproductive systems. Three classes: Turbellaria, Trematoda, Cestoda

Class Turbellaria (planarians): Dugesia

Class Trematoda (flukes): Opisthorchis (Clonorchis) sinensis, Fasciola hepatica, Schistosoma

Class Cestoda (tapeworms): Taenia solium, Dibothriocephalus latus

Phyla Nematoda (Nematodes, Roundworms):

Ubiquitous, bilaterally symmetrical, cylindrical, unsegmented, pseudocoelomate worms, including many important parasites of plants and animals. Nematodes have a complete digestive tract.

Ex. Ascaris lumbricoides, Loa loa, Filaria, Rhabditus, Turbatrix, Trichinella, Necator, Enterobius

Coelomate- characteristic in which organisms have a coelomic body cavity surrounded by mesoderm and that contains complex systems of organs and compartments

Protostomes- major group of phyla in which the mouth is derived from the embryological blastopore, organisms that are protostomes are mollusks and annelids

Mantle- specialized layer of epidermal cells in mollusks that secrete a shell

Shell- structure secreted by the mantle

Open Circulatory System- circulatory system that has a few large vessels and a heart, but no smaller vessels or capillaries

Visceral Mass- structure of organ systems (digestion, excretion, and reproduction) and sensory structures in mollusks

Foot- ventral, muscular, and highly modified structure used for locomotion in mollusks

Head- differentiated structure present in some mollusks

Radula- horny toothed organ in the mouth of polyplacophorans that scrapes food (algae) from rocks

Incurrent Siphon- ventral structure in bivalves formed along with the excurrent siphon by the mantles of the left and right valves joining posteriorly, functions in directing water through the clam

Excurrent Siphon- dorsal structure in bivalves formed along with the incurrent siphon by the mantles of the left and right valves joining posteriorly, functions in directing water through the clam

Mantle Cavity- space between the mantle and visceral mass

Mouth- structure by which food is directed to by the cilia of bivalves

Hinge- structure located on the shell

Umbo- structure located on the shell

Adductor Muscles- anterior and posterior structures that connect to the shell

Gills- structure in bivalves

Foot- structure in bivalves (probably used for locomotion)

Labial Palps- structure in bivalves

Segmentation- characteristic in which the animal body is divided into repetitive segments (metameres) arranged on a longitudinal axis and divided by septa, distinguishing feature of annelids

Septa- structure separating each segment of an annelid

Setae- small, bristle-like appendages often occurring in pairs on lateral and ventral surfaces of annelids

Parapodia- fleshy appendages occurring in pairs in Nerieis, have a large surface area, are highly vascularized with blood vessels, and help the polychaete move and respire

Prostomium- fleshy lobe in earthworms proceeding the mouth

Peristomium- first body segment in an earthworm, immediately posterior to the mouth

Clitellum- series of swollen segments at the anterior third of the body of an earthworm

Seminal Vesicles- structures that serves as the maturing sites for sperm

Male Gonopores- openings that allow sperm to exit the body of an earthworm

Seminal Receptacles- openings of the adjacent copulating worm that temporarily hold sperm after exiting through the male gonopores

Female Gonopores- openings that allow eggs to exit the body of an earthworm

Cocoon- structure by which the eggs stored in the mucous band for fertilization are able to be released from the worm

Pharynx- structure that functions in food ingestion of the earthworm

Esophagus- structure that functions in transport of materials in the earthworm

Crop- structure that functions in storage of materials in the earthworm

Gizzard- structure that functions in maceration of materials in the earthworm

Intestine- structure that functions in absorption of materials in the earthworm

Ovaries- small reproductive structures in annelids clustered around the anterior segments

Brain- structure in annelids anterior and dorsal to the pharynx, continuous with the ventral nerve cord

Ventral Nerve Cord- structure in annelids continuous with the brain

Nephridia- structures that occur in each of the segments of an annelid, small, white, convoluted tubes found on the inner surface of each of the segments

Nephrostomes- ciliated, funnel-shaped structures that gather waste products throughout the earthworm and then release them through the nephridiopores

Nephridiopores- external pores by which waste products exit via the nephrostomes

Typhlosole- internal fold of tissue along the digestive tract of an earthworm arising from the dorsal wall, creases a U-shaped intestinal lumen and doubles the surface area for absorption of nutrients

Spermatophore- packet of sperm that is injected by one of the copulating earthworms into the female gonopore of the other copulating earthworm

Phyla

Phyla Mollusca (Snails, Clams, Octopuses, Squid, Chitons):

Bilaterally symmetrical, protostome, coelomate animals that occur in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. Mollusks have a visceral mass and muscular foot that is used in locomotion; many also have a head. Many mollusks form a shell, and all except for the bivalves have a radula, which is a rasping, tonguelike organ used for scraping, drilling, or capturing prey. The circulatory system consists of a heart and, usually, an open system through which the blood circulates freely. Four classes: Polyplacophora, Gastropoda, Bivalvia, Cephalopoda

Class Polyplacophora (chitons)

Class Gastropoda (snails)

Class Bivalvia (clams, oysters, mussels): Anodonta, Pinctada

Class Cephalopoda (octopus, squid): Loligo

Phyla Annelida (Segmented Worms):

Segmented, bilaterally symmetrical, protostome coelomates. The segments are divided internally by septa. Cerebral ganglion (brain) is well developed; circulatory system is closed; digestive tract is complete. Three classes: Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, Hirodinea

Class Polychaeta (marine worms): Nereis, Aphrodita, Chaetopterus

Class Oligochaeta (oligochaetes): Lumbricus terrestris

Class Hirudinea (leeches): Hirudo medicinalis

Exoskeleton- external skeleton of arthropods

Chitin- long chain of nitrogen-containing sugar molecules that make up the exoskeleton of an arthropod

Chelicerae- feeding structures located on the appendages of the most anterior segments of chelicerates

Pedipalps- second pair of appendages in chelicerates modified for capturing prey, sensing the environment, or copulating

Cephalothorax- one of two body segments of a chelicerate, consists of fused head and thoracic segments

Abdomen- one of two body segments of a chelicerate, most posterior body region

Carapace- horseshoe-shaped structure covering the cephalothorax of a horseshoe crab

Chilaria- degenerated legs posterior to the walking legs of a horseshoe crab

Book Gills- modified appendages of the abdominal segments of horseshoe crabs that are sites of gas exchange

Biramous- double-branched appendages

Compound Eyes- structures found in crustaceans, usually have multiple lenses attached

First Antennae- one of five anterior pairs of crustacean appendages

Second Antennae- one of five anterior pairs of crustacean appendages

Mandibles- one of five anterior pairs of crustacean appendages, functions in feeding

Maxillae- one of five anterior pairs of crustacean appendages

Maxillipeds- one of five anterior pairs of crustacean appendages

Chelipad- modified structure on a crustacean used in feeding

Swimmerets- abdominal appendages of a crustacean, synonymous with pleopods

Pleopods- abdominal appendages of a crustacean, synonymous with swimmerets

Uropods- most posterior parts of crustacean appendages, broad, flat structures that surround the telson

Telson- terminal abdominal segment of a crustacean

Analogous- characteristic in which appendages of two species have similar functions but different embryological origin

Homologous- characteristic in which two different species have similar developmental origin but may or many not serve the same function

Chelate- pincer-like with opposing claws

Heart- diamond-shaped structure in a crayfish surrounded by a thin pericardial sac, lies on the dorsal midline just anterior to the abdominal segments

Pericardial Sac- thin structure surrounding the heart

Ostia- small openings in the heart by which blood is able to enter the heart

Gonads- testes or ovaries, lateral and just anterior to the heart. Testes are usually white, and ovaries are orange.

Cardiac Stomach- continuous, membranous structure lying along the dorsal midline of the cephalothorax, surrounded by muscle and reinforced with ridges of tissue, receives food from the esophagus and mouth, food moves from here to the pyloric stomach

Pyloric Stomach- continuous, membranous structure lying along the dorsal midline of the cephalothorax, surrounded by muscle and reinforced with ridges of tissue, food comes here via cardiac stomach and moves through the intestine and out the anus at the base of the telson

Esophagus- feeding tube that serves as the pathway from the mouth to the cardiac stomach

Mouth- structure that ingests food and passes it through to the esophagus

Digestive Gland- large structure that secretes enzymes and stores food that lies just posterior and laterally to the stomachs

Ventral Nerve Cord- structure lying beneath the internal organs that connects to the brain via two pairs of nerves that pass around the esophagus and come together anteriorly to the brain

Brain- structure between and beneath the eyestalks of a crayfish, connected to the ventral nerve cord

Ganglia- series of swellings posterior to the esophagus that extends the full length of the body, each of which controls organs in the immediate segment

Green Glands- excretory organs opening at the base of each antennae of a crayfish

Uniramous- single-branched appendages

Tracheae- efficient respiratory system of tubes that conduct air throughout the body of insects, responsible for the success of insects on land

Prothorax- one of three parts of the thorax of a grasshopper consisting of a single pair of legs

Mesothorax- one of three parts of the thorax of a grasshopper consisting of a single pair of legs

Metathorax- one of three parts of the thorax of a grasshopper consisting of a single pair of legs

Labrum- extension of the head that covers the mouthparts of a grasshopper

Mandibles- structures beneath the labrum of a grasshopper

Maxillae- structure beneath the mandibles of a grasshopper, have segmented extensions called palps

Palps- segmented extensions of maxillae of grasshoppers

Labium- structure beneath the maxillae palps of a grasshopper

Spiracle- breathing pore opening to the respiratory system of tracheal tubes, found in Romalea

Ovipositor- terminal segment of female Romalea modified to lay eggs

Dichotomous Key- common tool for identifying organisms, keys list and describe pairs of opposing traits, each of which leads to another pair of traits until a level of classification of the specimen being identified is reached

Phyla

Phyla Arthropoda (Arthropods):

Insects, crustaceans, spiders, centipedes, and millipedes; bilaterally symmetrical protostome coelomates with segmented bodies, chitinous exoskeleton, complete digestive tract, dorsal brain, paired nerve cord, and jointed appendages. Arthropods are the largest phylum of animals. Three subphylums: Chelicerata, Crustacea, Uniramia.

Subphylum Chelicerata (chelicerates)

Class Merostomata (horseshoe crabs): Limulus

Class Pycnogonida (sea spiders)

Class Arachnida (arachnids): Centruroides

Subphylum Crustacea (crustaceans, crabs, shrimp): Cambarus, Daphnia, Artemia

Subphylum Uniramia (uniramians)

Class Chilopoda (centipedes): Scolopendra

Class Diplopoda (millipedes)

Class Insecta (insects)

Order Collembola (springtails)

Order Diptera (true flies): Anopheles

Order Thysanura (silverfish)

Order Hemiptera (true bugs)

Order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, walking sticks): Romalea

Order Coleoptera (beetles)

Order Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies)

Order Isoptera (termites)

Order Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths)

Order Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants)

Deuterostomes- organisms belonging to phyla Echinodermata, Hemichordata, and Chordata. Characteristics: the fate of the blastopore is that it becomes the anus, the pattern of early cell division is radial, fate of the cells in the early embryo is indeterminate (fate is not fixed until late development), and the mesoderm formation occurs from endodermal cells opposite the blastopore

Protostomes- organisms belonging to the lower phyla of animals. Characteristics: fate of the blastopore results in it becoming the mouth, spiral pattern of early cell division, fate of the cells in the early embryo is fixed, and the mesoderm formation occurs from endodermal cells near the blastopore

Ossicles- calcareous plates that make up the internal skeleton of an echinoderm

Water Vascular System- structure in echinoderms that consists of a series of coelomic water-filled canals with tube feet, helps in echinoderm movement

Tube Feet- hollow projections within the coelomic water-filled canals of the water vascular system, muscle contractions and hydrostatic pressure in the water vascular system extend and move the tube feet and other parts of the system, thereby moving the animal

Oral- lower surface of a sea star, site where the mouth is located

Aboral- upper surface of a sea star, site where the anus is located

Dermal Gills- structures surrounding the blunt spines of sea stars that function in respiration by diffusion

Pedicellariae- pincerlike structures surrounding the blunt spines of sea stars that are used to remove debris from the surface of the sea star

Madreporite- sieve connecting the water vascular system with the environment, located on the aboral surface of a sea star

Ambulacral Groove- structure by which the tube feet of a sea star protrude from

Test- solid shell fused together by the ossicles of urchins

Aristotle’s Lantern- small internal structure of five teeth used by urchins to scavenge and scrape surfaces of rocks and gather algae for food

Tentacles- modified tube feet that secrete a mucus that captures small floating organisms used as food

Evisceration- process in which sea cucumbers respond to stress by rupturing anteriorly and rapidly expelling their pharynx, digestive tract, and other organs

Dorsal Nerve Cord- partially hollow structure that is a distinguishing feature of phyla Hemichordata and Chordata

Pharyngeal Slits- openings in the throat that filter water entering through the mouth

Proboscis- structure found in acorn worms

Collar- structure found in acorn worms

Trunk- structure found in acorn worms

Notochord- cartilaginous rod that forms on the dorsal side of the gut in the embryo of chordates

Tunic- cellulose sac surrounding the sieve-like basket perforated with pharyngeal gill slits of adult urochordates

Post Anal Tail- diagnostic trait of chordates

Atrium- surrounding chamber by which water passes through after the arches and before exiting the atriopore

Atriopore- structure by which water exits through lancelets after passing through the arches and atrium

Buccal Funnel- round structure in lampreys and hagfishes that contains the mouth at its center

Ammocoete- larva of a lamprey

Endoskeleton- cartilaginous structure in sharks

Lateral Line- structure in sharks that runs along each side of the body, contains sensory cells to detect slight vibrations

Operculum- movable gill cover that protects the gills of bony fish

Lateral-Line System- structure running along each side and branching over the head of most fishes, consists of sensory pits in the skin that detect water currents and predators or prey that may be causing water movements near the fish

Tadpole- aquatic larval stage of amphibians

Poikilothermic- characteristic in reptiles in which the body temperature is dependent upon the environment

Homeothermic- characteristic in birds in which the body temperature remains constant, independent of the environment

Mammary Glands- structures found in mammal mothers that secrete milk used to nourish their young

Phyla

Phyla Echinodermata (Echinoderms, Sea Stars, Brittle Stars, Sand Dollars, Sea Cucumbers, Sea Urchins):

These complex deuterostome, coelomate, marine animals are radially symmetrical as adults. Calcareous plates called ossicles are abundant in the epidermis. The water vascular system extends through perforated plates as tube feet and is a specialized feature of the phylum. Five classes: Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, Crinoidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea

Class Asteroidea (sea stars): Asterias

Class Ophiuroidea (brittle stars): Ophioderma

Class Crinoidea (sea lilies)

Class Echinoidea (urchins, sand dollars): Arbacia

Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers): Cucumaria

Phyla Hemichordata (Acorn Worms)

Soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical, burrowing, marine, deuterostome, coelomate worms with three-segmented bodies (proboscis, collar, and trunk.) Example: Balanoglossus

Phyla Chordata (Chordates):

Bilaterally symmetrical, deuterostome, coelomate animals that, at some stage of their development, have a notochord, pharyngeal slits, a hollow nerve cord on their dorsal side, and a tail. Three subphylums: Urochordata, Cephalochordata, Vertebrata

Subphylum Urochordata (sea squirts, tunicates)

Subphylum Cephalochordata (amphioxus, lancelets): Branchiostoma

Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)

Class Agnatha (lampreys, hagfish): Petromyzon

Class Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays): Squalus

Class Osteichthyes (bony fish)

Class Amphibia (frogs, salamanders, toads)

Class Reptilia (snakes, turtles, lizards)

Class Aves (birds)

Class Mammalia (mammals): Homo sapiens

Tissue- group of integrated cells with similar structure and function

Organs- group of integrated tissues

Systems- group of integrated organs

Epithelial Tissue- protection of the body, protects underlying tissues from dehydration and mechanical damage, provides a selectively permeable barrier that facilitates or impedes passage of materials, provides sensory tissue, and secretes fluids

Connective Tissue- tissue which functions in supporting, defending, and storing of nutrients in the body

Muscular Tissue- tissue which allows for contraction and relaxation of the muscles (movement), comprised of actin and myosin

Nervous Tissue- tissue consisting of neurons and supporting cells, functions in relaying messages throughout the body

Simple Epithelium- one of three classes of epithelial tissue, single cell layer thick and classified according to the shapes of the cells (squamous, cuboidal, or columnar)

Stratified Epithelium- one of three classes of epithelial tissue, several cell layers thick, typically top layer is squamous, middle layer cuboidal, and bottom layer columnar

Glandular Epithelium- one of three classes of epithelial tissue, functions more in metabolic processes than in simple epithelium functions

Squamous Epithelial Cells- irregular epithelial cells, line alveoli of the lungs, filtration systems of the kidneys, and the major cavities of the body. Cells are relatively inactive and are associated with sites of passive movement of water, electrolytes, and other substances

Cuboidal Epithelial Cells- epithelial tissues which are several layers thick, shaped in cube-like units, line the respiratory and intestinal tracts as well as ducts such as kidney tubules. Cilia and secretion of fluids are also present in these tissues

Columnar Epithelial Cells- epithelial tissues which are several layers thick, shaped in column-like units, line the respiratory and intestinal tracts as well as ducts such as kidney tubules. Cilia and secretion of fluids are also present in these tissues

Villi- large, fingerlike structures located on the inner intestinal wall of columnar epithelium

Keratin- strong fibrous protein found in hair and fingernails, produced by skin cells

Exocrine Glands- glandular epithelium structures derived from tubular invaginations of epithelial layers and include the liver, mammary glands, and pancreas.

Hepatocyte- liver cell

Defensive Tissue- small, round cells that may move individually in the circulating fluids of the body or remain fixed in an organ such as the liver or spleen, function in the body’s defense

Sequestering Connective Tissue- tissues that accumulate and transport particular molecules

Structural Connective Tissue- tissues that function in the forming and maintaining of the structural integrity of the body

Macrophages- cells of defensive connective tissues, engulf and digest cellular debris, invading bacteria, and foreign particles

Adipose Tissue- tissue composed of fat cells containing a large, oil-filled vacuole

Blood Cells- cells that maintain the proper pH of the body and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

Plasma- extracellular fluid matrix containing blood cells, helps function in maintaining the proper pH of the body as well as transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide

Erythrocytes- red blood cells

Leukocytes- white blood cells

Platelets- enucleated fragments of large bone marrow cells

Hemoglobin- substance that binds and transports oxygen within the erythrocytes

Fibroblasts- irregular branching cells that secrete an extracellular matrix of strong fibrous proteins

Cartilage- cells of structural connective tissue found in skeletal joints

Bone- structural connective tissue that forms in thin concentric layers called lamellae, also called osteocytes. Collagen fibers of bone are surrounded by hard crystals of calcium salts rather than the flexible matrix of chondrin in cartilage

Collagen- most commonly secreted protein by fibroblasts, represents ¼ of all vertebrate protein

Elastin- fiber produced by fibroblasts consisting of protein fibers with longer cross-links than those of collagen, this allows for elasticity in elastin

Reticulin- thin, branching fiber that supports glands such as the spleen and lymph nodes, also composes junctions between several other kinds of tissues

Tendon- structures that connect muscle to bone and derive their strength from the regular, longitudinal arrangement of bundles of collagen fibers

Ligaments- structures that bind bone to bone and are similar in structure to tendons

Chondrin- extracellular gelatinous matrix responsible for the resilience and support of collagen, chondrin of cartilage may be impregnated with fibers of collagen

Chondrocytes- cells that secrete a matrix comprising chondrin of cartilage with fibers of collagen, reside in cavities called lacunae

Lacunae- cavities in which chondrocytes reside in

Hyaline Cartilage- cartilage that cushions bone surfaces between joints

Elastic Cartilage- cartilage commonly found in the external ear and voice box (larynx), more flexible than hyaline cartilage and rich in fibers

Osteocytes- bone cells that maintain the fibrous and crystalline matrix of collagen fibers of bone surrounded by hard crystals of calcium salts

Lamellae- thin, concentric structures which comprise the bone unit, form a series of tubes around narrow channels called Haversian canals that align parallel to the long axis of the bone

Haversian Canals- narrow channels that surround blood vessels and nerve cells throughout bone and communicate with bone cells in lacunae through canaliculi

Canaliculi- structure that aids in communication between the Haversian canals and other bone cells

Actin- filament found in muscle tissue that interacts with myosin to produce movement

Myosin- filament found in muscle tissue that interacts with actin to produce movement

Myofibrils- bundle of contractile filaments that occur within a single muscle cell whose uniform contraction produces considerable force and movement

Skeletal Muscle- muscle attached to the skeleton that is controlled voluntarily, a long fiber of regularly arranged contractile units with many nuclei scattered at the periphery of the fiber

Smooth Muscle- long, spindle-shaped muscle containing a single nucleus, line the walls of the gut and blood vessels, contraction controlled involuntarily; organized into sheets of cells that contract slowly and rhythmically

Cardiac Muscle- heart muscle composed of chains of single, uninucleate cells that have intercalated disks

Intercalated Disks- specialized junctions in cardiac muscle

Neurons- cells specialized for transmitting nerve impulses

Supporting Cells- cells that help propagate the nerve impulses and provide nutrients to neurons

Cell Body- structure in a neuron containing a nucleus

Dendrites- short extensions of a neuron that usually carry impulses toward the cell body from other cells or sensory systems

Axons- long extensions that usually carry impulses away from the cell body

Clavicle- collarbone

Scapula- shoulder blade

Humerus- upper arm

Ulna- longer of the two bones in the forearm, is on the side of the little finger

Radius- shorter of the two bones of the forearm, is on the right side of the thumb

Carpals- eight bones in the wrist bound by strong connective tissue

Metacarpals- five main bones in the hand

Phalanges- bones of the fingers

Femur- thigh bones, above the knee

Fibula- smaller, more slender of the two leg bones below the knee

Tibia- shin bone, larger of the two leg bones below the knee

Patella- kneecap

Tarsals- seven bones of the ankle and heel

Metatarsals- five long bones of the feet

Phalanges- bones of the toes, two in the big toe and three in each of the other toes

Sternum- breastbone

Ribs- normally 24 bones

Vertebrae- 26 bones, including the sacrum (forms part of the hip) and the coccyx (tailbone) (sacrum and coccyx are made of fused vertebrae)

Skull- 28 bones, including the inner-ear bones (most bones of the skull are fused with immovable joints that appear as wavy lines

Muscle Tension- force generated by a contracted muscle

Isotonic Contractions- muscle contractions that shorten the muscle yet have the tension remain constant, isotonic contractions are used in lifting weights

Isometric Contractions- muscle contractions that increase the tension generated by the muscle without shortening the muscle

Extensor- muscle that straightens a joint

Flexor- muscle that bends a joint

Insertion- where a muscle attaches at its more movable end

Origin- where a muscle attaches to a relatively fixed position

Deltoid- inserts on humerus; originates on clavicle. When arm is at rest, the deltoid is the outer muscle along the upper third of the humerus. When the arm is raised, the deltoid is the hard mass of muscle above the shoulder joint. The short, thick deltoid raises the arm to horizontal or slightly higher.

Pectorals- large, triangular muscle covering the upper part of the chest. Inserts on the humerus; originates from the clavicle, upper ribs, and sternum. If your arm is fixed, such as during climbing, the pectoral helps pull the chest upward. The pectorals are the "breast" of poultry and are the main flight muscles of birds

Trapezius- inserts on the clavicle and along the scapula; originates along the upper dorsal midline. Aids in lifting with the arms or carrying loads on shoulders; braces and shrugs the shoulders

Latissimus- large sheet of muscle in back. Inserts on the upper part of the humerus, and originates along the mid-dorsal line. Moves the arm downward. The latissimus is a primary muscle used in a swimming stroke or in bringing the arm forcibly downward

Triceps- inserts on ulna and originates from scapula and humerus. The triceps extends the arm at the elbow and is the primary muscle for doing a pushup

Biceps- inserts on the radius and originates on the scapula. The biceps flexes the arm at the elbow and is the primary muscle for doing a pullup

Wrist Extensors- muscles on the upper side of the lower arm that raise the wrist upward

Wrist Flexors- muscles on the lower side of the lower arm which bend the hand at the wrist. With your palm up, you can see the tendons of the wrist flexors, especially if you are lifting something heavy

Finger Flexors- similar to those of the wrist

Finger Extensors- similar to those of the wrist

Masseter- the main muscle that clenches the jaw, can feel this muscle at one’s temples and on either side of the cheekbones (zygotic arch)

Hamstring- a set of three muscles on the back of the thigh that bend the leg at the knee. Originate on the coxal bone and femur; insert on the fibula. Can feel the hamstring’s tendons at the back of the knee joint when bending knee while standing on the other leg.

Quadriceps- large muscle on the anterior part of the thigh that originates on the coxal bone and inserts on the tibia. The quadriceps extends the knee and enables standing from a squatting position, provides much of the power for kicking a ball

Gastrocnemius- the calf muscle, originates on the femur and inserts (by the Achilles tendon) on the heel bone (one of the metatarsals). The gastrocnemius enables standing on tiptoe and extension of the foot.

Toe Flexors- several muscles in the lower leg that curl the toes

Toe Extendors- several muscles in the lower leg that extend the toes. Tendons are visible atop the foot when raising toes

Gluteus- large, powerful muscle in the posterior pelvic region. Inserts on the femur and originates from the coxal bone. The gluteus supports the pelvis and trunk on the femur, Used in climbing, cycling, jumping, and regaining an erect position after bending forward

Abdominals- set of muscles below the chest that flatten and compress the abdomen. Abdominals bend the body forward and from side to side, also used to urinate and defecate

Growth- irreversible increase in size of an organism

Differentiation- structural and functional specialization of groups of cells

Morphogenesis- development of pattern, shape, and form

Embryology- study of growth, differentiation and morphogenesis in the early development of an organism

Fertilization- stage in which male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote

Cleavage- stage in which the zygote divides into a larger and larger number of smaller and smaller cells that eventually form a hollow sphere of many cells. Cleavage ends when groups of cells begin to differentiate

Gastrulation- stage in which cells of the sphere formed during cleavage continue to divide and move inward to form three cellular layers

Isolecithal- characteristic in which yolk of eggs are distributed evenly, bearing this characteristic are sea star eggs

Holoblastic- cleavage of the entire zygote, indicates that only a small amount of yolk is present and easily divides

Morula- ball of 16-32 cells formed by continuation of cleavage in a fertilized cell

Blastula- hollow sphere of many cells formed by continuation of cleavage in a fertilized cell

Blastocoel- fluid-filled cavity within the blastula

Blastomeres- cells within the blastocoel

Gastrula- structure formed by cells invaginating into the blastocoel during early gastrulation

Archenteron- new cavity formed during early gastrulation along with the formation of the gastrula

Ectoderm- outer layer of gastrula cells that form the skin and nervous system of the mature organism

Endoderm- inner layer of gastrula cells that form the digestive tract

Mesoderm- third and final germ layer that forms between the ectoderm and endoderm, forms from cells disassociated from the endoderm and produces muscular tissue and parts of the reproductive and circulatory systems

Organogenesis- development of organs

Bipinnaria Larva- motile and feeding larval stage of sea stars

Brachiolaria Larva- larva that attach to a substrate and undergo considerable metamorphosis

Juvenile- mobile and continually maturing sea star

Amplexus- process in which a male frog clasps a female between his front legs and applies pressure to stimulate her to release eggs. After this, the male releases sperm cells into the water immediately surrounding the eggs, thus allowing for external fertilization

Animal Pole- darkly pigmented hemisphere in the cytoplasm of a newly fertilized egg

Vegetal Pole- lightly pigmented hemisphere in the cytoplasm of a newly fertilized egg

Telolecithal- characteristic in which the vegetal pole contains a significant amount of yolk, seen in frogs

Gray Crescent- structure that forms in the cytoplasm between the two poles and opposite the site of sperm-cell penetration

Blastopore- site at which the layer of animal-pole cells of frogs move and grow down over the vegetal cells, then invaginates inward at this depression

Yolk Plug- yolk cell that protrudes through the blastopore

Blastopore- structure through which the yolk plug protrudes from

Neural Tube (Neurolation)- structure that forms after gastrulation in vertebrates along with organogenesis to produce a functional larva

Germinal Disc- small area of cytoplasm present on the surface of a yolk, cells in this area later form the embryo

Albumen- clear, watery substance surrounding the egg cell that supplies the embryo with water and food in addition to the yolk

Meroblastic- partial cleavage in birds that occurs as a result of the abundance of yolk that prevents the entire zygote from dividing, therefore this is confined to the germinal disc and produces a flat blastodisc of developing cells lying atop the bulky yolk

Blastodisc- flat structure containing developing cells sitting atop the bulky yolk, eventually separates from the underlying yolk and forms the blastocoel

Primitive Streak- linear furrow that serves as the opening of the blastodisc, cells migrate across this after moving across the surface of the blastodisc, eventually becomes the midline of the developing chick

Amnion- structure surrounding the embryo

Yolk Sac- structure surrounding the yolk

Allantois- structure that serves as a waste disposal sac

Chorion- structure surrounding the entire embryo and yolk

Heart Murmur- turbulence of the heart that occurs when any of the heart valves do not close completely

Plasma- straw-colored fluid comprising 55% of blood

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)- most abundant of the cells suspended in plasma, 250,000 are found in one drop of blood, lack nuclei, stained pink under a microscope

White Blood Cells- larger cells found in human blood cells, stained bluish-purple under a microscope

Arteries- type of blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart, consist of three concentric layers: an outer layer of connective tissue, a middle layer of smooth muscle, and an inner layer of epithelial cells

Pulse- pressure waves of blood occurring as a result of the constant contracting and relaxing of the heart

Blood Pressure- pressure exerted on the surface of blood vessels by blood; circulates blood through arteries, veins, and capillaries

Systolic Pressure- pressure resulting from the heart contracting (increased pressure that results from blood leaving the heart)

Diastolic Pressure- pressure resulting from the heart relaxing

Pulse Pressure- pressure felt in arteries upon touching of the skin

Retina- layer of photoreceptors on the back inner surface of the eye; most of the surface is covered by photoreceptor cells called rods and cones (modified epithelial cells)

Optic Disc- region of the retina where blood vessels and optic nerves enter or leave the retina; lacks photoreceptors and is therefore a "blind spot" of the retina

Near Point- shortest distance at which an object is in sharp focus, the closer the distance, the greater the eye’s ability to accommodate for changes in distance